Following the Second World War, the imperial powers faced strong international pressure for the liberation of their colonies. However, in South Africa, the firm presence of white settlers made the transfer of power to the African black majority extremely complex. After an initial phase from 1945 to around 1958, during which white power seemed to consolidate, decolonization proceeded in three stages. First, the High Commission territories under direct British rule (present-day Lesotho, Botswana, and Swaziland) and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland (present-day Zambia and Malawi) achieved independence relatively peacefully by 1968. Second, independence struggles involving much more bloodshed took place in the Portuguese colonies and Southern Rhodesia (Rhodesia from 1965, independent as Zimbabwe in 1980). Third, in South West Africa (independent as Namibia in 1990) and South Africa, the black majority achieved power in a dramatic conclusion through non-racial democratic elections in 1994. Although imperial powers still controlled the region's economy at the end of the colonial era, South Africa emerged as the dominant economic power by the end of the 20th century. In the early 21st century, attempts began to integrate all the countries of Southern Africa. However, despite the spread of multiparty democracy, violence, inequality, and poverty persisted throughout the region.

Consolidation of White Rule in South Africa

Paradoxically, World War II and the rise of more radical African political movements resulted in the further consolidation of white rule in South Africa. This was clearly demonstrated by the victory of the Afrikaner-dominated National Party (NP) in the South African white elections, the creation of the British Central African Federation, and new white immigration to Rhodesia, Angola, Mozambique, and South West Africa. While the situation in South Africa had a significant impact on the entire region, growing international condemnation of South Africa's racial policies arose as racial discrimination became discredited in Europe and decolonization progressed in South Asia.

Discontent with the wartime cabinet and fear of radical urban black elements formed the backdrop for the Reunited National Party's (later renamed the National Party) victory in the 1948 white elections. The National Party campaigned on a platform of apartheid ("separateness"). Although the National Party failed to win a majority of the votes, its victory signified a new Afrikaner unity achieved through three decades of intense ideological effort and institution-building aimed at seizing control of the South African state.

Various interest groups within the National Party had different interpretations of apartheid, but the party's fundamental goals were interconnected: to consolidate its power base, promote Afrikaner interests, and protect white supremacy. By 1970, these goals had largely been achieved. The National Party controlled Parliament, and many English-speaking whites, despite the declaration of the Republic of South Africa in 1960-61 and the subsequent withdrawal from the British Commonwealth, voted for the National Party, believing that only it could guarantee white rule. Economic and educational policies favored Afrikaners, who gradually urbanized and escaped economic disadvantage.

Hendrik Verwoerd, who served as Minister of Native Affairs and then Prime Minister (1958-1966), concretized the apartheid policy. Controls on the movement of African black labor were tightened, and racial discrimination in employment was expanded. From 1959, chiefs in rural reserves (renamed Bantu homelands or Bantustans) were granted more authority and limited self-government was permitted, but still under white control. Racial distinctions between whites, African blacks, Coloureds (mixed race), and Indians were more strictly defined and monitored. While Coloureds and Indians were subjected to white domination and humiliated by racial discrimination, they were nevertheless treated better than African blacks.

Black resistance to apartheid policies in the 1950s was led by the African National Congress (ANC) in alliance with radical white, Coloured, and Indian groups. In 1955, this Congress Alliance adopted the Freedom Charter, a non-racial social democratic program. However, suspicion of non-racialism among African nationalists and hostility towards white communists led to the formation of a rival organization, the Pan-Africanist Congress (PAC), in 1959. Both organizations were banned after the anti-pass law demonstration in Sharpeville in March 1960, where police shot dead at least 67 African protesters and injured over 180, triggering widespread protests. Increasingly harsh security legislation, the banning, exile, and imprisonment of leaders (including ANC leader Nelson Mandela), and the extensive use of informants led to relative political stability in the 1960s.

The stability of the 1960s encouraged international investment, and the South African economy became much more centralized and capital-intensive. Economic growth enabled unprecedented social engineering, and the political landscape of South Africa was transformed as millions of people were forcibly removed from so-called white areas to black homelands. Access to welfare and political rights became dependent on state-manipulated ethnic identities, which gained new importance with the creation of homelands. In 1976, the Transkei homeland was granted independence by the South African government, and similar "independence" was granted to Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, and Venda in the following four years, although their "independence" was not recognized internationally.

Challenges of the Early 21st Century: Integration, Inequality, and the Persistence of Violence

At the end of the 20th century, South Africa emerged as the economic powerhouse of the African continent, but the legacy of apartheid still left deep scars throughout South African society. Although the country transitioned to a multiracial democracy with the inauguration of President Nelson Mandela in 1994, economic inequality remained a serious problem. A white minority still controlled a significant portion of the economy, while the black majority continued to suffer from poverty and social disadvantage.

In the 21st century, efforts to integrate the Southern African region, centered around the Southern African Development Community (SADC), have been actively pursued. Various initiatives aimed at strengthening economic cooperation, promoting political stability, and fostering social development have been launched. However, economic disparities between member states, political instability, and widespread corruption have acted as significant obstacles to regional integration.

Despite the establishment of multiparty democracy in most countries in the Southern African region, political violence, ethnic conflicts, and social instability remain serious problems. The political crisis in Zimbabwe, the civil war in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and the high crime rate within South Africa are examples reflecting the unstable reality of the region. Furthermore, the HIV/AIDS pandemic has had a devastating impact on the demographic structure and socio-economic development of the Southern African region, acting as a factor that further deepens poverty and inequality.

In conclusion, while South Africa transitioned to a multiracial democracy after a turbulent decolonization process in the late 20th century, the legacy of apartheid and various socio-economic and political challenges continue to make the future of the Southern African region uncertain. Sustained efforts to address economic inequality, secure political stability, and realize social justice are necessary for genuine regional integration and sustainable development.